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NO+BRUMA OS // Manual del Operador

Evidencia

Fuentes

Las 99 fuentes en que se basan nuestros contenidos: revisiones sistemáticas, metaanálisis, grandes estudios y organismos de salud.

Todo lo que publicamos sobre cannabis, en el sitio y en Instagram, sale de tres investigaciones propias sobre salud mental, cognición y salud física, que se apoyan en literatura revisada por pares. Aquí está la bibliografía completa, ordenada por tema. Priorizamos revisiones sistemáticas y metaanálisis; los estudios individuales se usan cuando aportan un diseño experimental o un seguimiento largo.

Salud mental, trastorno por consumo y abstinencia

  1. Bahji, A., Stephenson, C., Tyo, R., Hawken, E. R., & Seitz, D. P. (2020). Prevalence of cannabis withdrawal symptoms among people with regular or dependent use of cannabinoids: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Network Open, 3(4), e202370. PMID: 32271390. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.2370.

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  2. Connor, J. P., Stjepanović, D., Le Foll, B., Hoch, E., Budney, A. J., & Hall, W. D. (2021). Cannabis use and cannabis use disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 7(1), 16. PMID: 33627670. DOI: 10.1038/s41572-021-00247-4.

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  3. Connor, J. P., Stjepanović, D., Budney, A. J., Le Foll, B., & Hall, W. D. (2022). Clinical management of cannabis withdrawal. Addiction, 117(7), 2075–2095. PMID: 34791767. DOI: 10.1111/add.15743.

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  4. Di Forti, M., Quattrone, D., Freeman, T. P., Tripoli, G., Gayer-Anderson, C., Quigley, H., et al. (2019). The contribution of cannabis use to variation in the incidence of psychotic disorder across Europe: The EU-GEI multicentre case-control study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 6(5), 427–436. PMID: 30902669. DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30048-3.

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  5. Englund, A., Oliver, D., Chesney, E., Chester, L., Wilson, J., Sovi, S., De Micheli, A., Hodsoll, J., Fusar-Poli, P., Strang, J., Murray, R. M., Freeman, T. P., & McGuire, P. (2023). Does cannabidiol make cannabis safer? A randomised, double-blind, cross-over trial of cannabis with four different CBD:THC ratios. Neuropsychopharmacology, 48(6), 869–876. PMID: 36380220. DOI: 10.1038/s41386-022-01478-z.

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  6. Fontanella, C. A., Steelesmith, D. L., Brock, G., Bridge, J. A., Campo, J. V., & Fristad, M. A. (2021). Association of cannabis use with self-harm and mortality risk among youths with mood disorders. JAMA Pediatrics. DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.5494.

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  7. Freeman, D., Dunn, G., Murray, R. M., Evans, N., Lister, R., Antley, A., et al. (2015). How cannabis causes paranoia: Using the intravenous administration of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) to identify key cognitive mechanisms leading to paranoia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41(2), 391–399. PMID: 25031222. DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbu098.

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  8. Gobbi, G., Atkin, T., Zytynski, T., Wang, S., Askari, S., Boruff, J., et al. (2019). Association of cannabis use in adolescence and risk of depression, anxiety, and suicidality in young adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 76(4), 426–434. PMID: 30758486. DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.4500.

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  9. Hall, W., Yimer, T. M., Thorne, R. L., Hoch, E., Burke, C., Gridley, A., Hurd, Y. L., Wilson, J., Leung, J., & Freeman, T. P. (2026). Relationships between cannabis use and mental disorders: Assessing the coherence of evidence from studies with different methodologies. The Lancet Psychiatry, 13(7), 604–614. PMID: 42309106. DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(26)00086-6.

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  10. Hirvonen, J., Goodwin, R. S., Li, C.-T., Terry, G. E., Zoghbi, S. S., Morse, C., et al. (2012). Reversible and regionally selective downregulation of brain cannabinoid CB1 receptors in chronic daily cannabis smokers. Molecular Psychiatry, 17(6), 642–649. PMID: 21747398. DOI: 10.1038/mp.2011.82.

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  11. Leung, J., Chan, G. C. K., Hides, L., & Hall, W. D. (2020). What is the prevalence and risk of cannabis use disorders among people who use cannabis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 109, 106479. PMID: 32485547. DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106479.

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  12. Lowe, D. J. E., Sorkhou, M., & George, T. P. (2024). Cannabis use in adolescents and anxiety symptoms and disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 50(2), 150–161. PMID: 38285048. DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2023.2299922.

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  13. Marconi, A., Di Forti, M., Lewis, C. M., Murray, R. M., & Vassos, E. (2016). Meta-analysis of the association between the level of cannabis use and risk of psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 42(5), 1262–1269. PMID: 26884547.

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  14. Petrilli, K., Ofori, S., Hines, L., Taylor, G., Adams, S., & Freeman, T. P. (2022). Association of cannabis potency with mental ill health and addiction: A systematic review. PMID: 35901795.

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  15. Poyatos-Pedrosa, C., et al. (2024). Cannabis and anhedonia: A systematic review. Psychiatry Research, 339, 116041. PMID: 38959579. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116041.

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  16. Schoeler, T., Monk, A., Sami, M. B., Klamerus, E., Foglia, E., Brown, R., et al. (2016). Continued versus discontinued cannabis use in patients with psychosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3(3), 215–225. PMID: 26777297. DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00363-6.

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  17. Schoeler, T., Petros, N., Di Forti, M., Klamerus, E., Foglia, E., Ajnakina, O., et al. (2016). Effects of continuation, frequency, and type of cannabis use on relapse in the first 2 years after onset of psychosis: An observational study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3(10), 947–953. DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30188-2.

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  18. Schuster, R. M., Gilman, J., Schoenfeld, D., Evenden, J., Hareli, M., Ulysse, C., Nip, E., Hanly, A., Zhang, H., & Evins, A. E. (2018). One month of cannabis abstinence in adolescents and young adults is associated with improved memory. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 79(6), 17m11977. PMID: 30408351. DOI: 10.4088/JCP.17m11977.

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  19. Scott, J. C., Slomiak, S. T., Jones, J. D., Rosen, A. F. G., Moore, T. M., & Gur, R. C. (2018). Association of cannabis with cognitive functioning in adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(6), 585–595. DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0335.

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  20. Solmi, M., et al. (2023). Balancing risks and benefits of cannabis use: Umbrella review of meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials and observational studies. BMJ, 382, e072348. PMID: 37648266. DOI: 10.1136/bmj-2022-072348.

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  21. Sorkhou, M., Bedder, R. H. S., & George, T. P. (2024). Cannabis use and mood disorders: A systematic review. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, 1346207. PMID: 38655516. DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1346207.

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  22. Starzer, M. S. K., Nordentoft, M., & Hjorthøj, C. (2018). Rates and predictors of conversion to schizophrenia or bipolar disorder following substance-induced psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry. PMID: 29179576.

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  23. Tourjman, S. V., et al. (2023). A systematic review and recommendations of cannabis use in bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. PMID: 35711159.

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  24. Xue, S., Husain, M. I., Zhao, H., & Ravindran, A. V. (2021). Cannabis use and prospective long-term association with anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 66(2), 126–138. PMID: 32909828. DOI: 10.1177/0706743720952251.

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  25. Young-Wolff, K. C., Cortez, C. A., Alexeeff, S. E., Silver, L. D., Pacula, R. L., Slama, N. E., et al. (2026). Adolescent cannabis use and risk of psychotic, bipolar, depressive, and anxiety disorders. JAMA Health Forum, 7(2), e256839. PMID: 41719031. DOI: 10.1001/jamahealthforum.2025.6839.

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  26. Wilson, J., et al. (2026). The efficacy and safety of cannabinoids for the treatment of mental disorders and substance use disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. The Lancet Psychiatry, 13(4), 304–315. PMID: 41856154. DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(26)00015-5.

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  27. Wilson, J., et al. (2026). Correction to the above systematic review. The Lancet Psychiatry. PMID: 42302809. DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(26)00176-8.

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  28. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2024). Cannabis (Marijuana) DrugFacts / cannabis information pages. NIH/NIDA.

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  29. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2024). National Survey on Drug Use and Health: methodological definitions and substance use disorder measures. SAMHSA.

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  30. European Union Drugs Agency. (2026). European Drug Report 2026: Cannabis. EUDA.

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  31. World Health Organization. (2025). Schizophrenia. WHO, actualización de 6 de octubre de 2025; incluye el consumo intenso de cannabis entre factores asociados a mayor riesgo en un marco gene-ambiente.

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Memoria, motivación, creatividad y sueño

  1. Althoff, M. D., Kinney, G. L., Aloia, M. S., Sempio, C., Klawitter, J., & Bowler, R. P. (2024). The impact of cannabis use proximal to sleep and cannabinoid metabolites on sleep architecture. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 20(10), 1615–1625. doi: 10.5664/jcsm.11212.

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  2. AminiLari, M., Wang, L., Neumark, S., et al. (2022). Medical cannabis and cannabinoids for impaired sleep: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Sleep, 45, zsab234. doi: 10.1093/sleep/zsab234.

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  3. Bloomfield, M. A. P., Ashok, A. H., Volkow, N. D., & Howes, O. D. (2016). The effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the dopamine system. Nature, Molecular Psychiatry-related review literature. [Artículo de revisión indexado y disponible en PubMed Central].

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  4. Burke, C. O., et al. (2024). Residual and enduring effects of cannabis use on cognitive function: A systematic review. [Artículo revisado por pares; publicación electrónica 2024].

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  5. Chan, O., et al. (2024). Cannabis use during adolescence and young adulthood and academic achievement: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics. PMID: 39374005.

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  6. Connor, J. P., Stjepanović, D., Le Foll, B., Hoch, E., Budney, A. J., & Hall, W. D. (2022). Clinical management of cannabis withdrawal. Addiction. PMID: 34791767.

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  7. Englund, A., et al. (2023). Does cannabidiol make cannabis safer? A randomised, double-blind, cross-over trial of cannabis with four different CBD:THC ratios. Neuropsychopharmacology.

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  8. Figueiredo, P. R., et al. (2020). Neurocognitive consequences of chronic cannabis use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 108, 358–369. PMID: 31715191. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.10.014.

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  9. Gates, P., Albertella, L., & Copeland, J. (2016). Cannabis withdrawal and sleep: A systematic review of human studies. Substance Abuse. PMID: 25893849.

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  10. Gowin, J. L., Ellingson, J. M., Karoly, H. C., Manza, P., Ross, J. M., Sloan, M. E., Tanabe, J. L., & Volkow, N. D. (2025). Brain function outcomes of recent and lifetime cannabis use. JAMA Network Open, 8(1), e2457069. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.57069.

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  11. Gowin, J. L., et al. (2026). Effects of legal-market cannabis and alcohol on verbal learning and memory. Psychopharmacology. PMID: 40996525.

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  12. Heng, Y. T., Barnes, C. M., & Yam, K. C. (2023). Cannabis use does not increase actual creativity but biases evaluations of creativity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 108(4), 635–646. PMID: 35901408. doi: 10.1037/apl0000599.

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  13. Hindley, G., et al. (2020). Psychiatric symptoms caused by cannabis constituents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry. PMID: 32197092.

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  14. Hoch, E., Volkow, N. D., Friemel, C. M., Lorenzetti, V., Freeman, T. P., & Hall, W. (2025). Cannabis, cannabinoids and health: A review of evidence on risks and medical benefits. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 275(2), 281–292. doi: 10.1007/s00406-024-01880-2. PMID: 39299947.

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  15. Kowal, M. A., Hazekamp, A., Colzato, L. S., van Steenbergen, H., & Hommel, B. (2015). Cannabis and creativity: Highly potent cannabis impairs divergent thinking in regular cannabis users. Psychopharmacology. doi: 10.1007/s00213-014-3749-1.

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  16. Lawn, W., et al. (2023). The acute effects of cannabis with and without cannabidiol in adults and adolescents: Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover experiment. [Artículo revisado por pares].

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  17. Mao, F., Hoepel, S. J. W., Shahisavandi, M., Luik, A. I., & El Marroun, H. (2025). Recreational cannabis use and sleep in the general population: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 84, 102189. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102189. PMID: 41187699.

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  18. McCartney, D., Arkell, T. R., Irwin, C., & McGregor, I. S. (2021). Determining the magnitude and duration of acute Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)-induced driving and cognitive impairment: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 126, 175–193. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.01.003. PMID: 33497784.

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  19. McCartney, D., et al. (2023). The “next day” effects of cannabis use: A systematic review. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. doi: 10.1089/can.2022.0185. PMID: 36475998.

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  20. Pacheco-Colón, I., Limia, J. M., & Gonzalez, R. (2018). Non-acute effects of cannabis use on motivation and reward sensitivity in humans: A systematic review. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 32, 497–507.

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  21. Pilon, F., Dumais, A., Giguère, C.-É., & Potvin, S. (2025). The effects of cannabis use disorder on cognitive functions: A meta-analysis. Addictive Behaviors. PMID: 40675034.

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  22. Ross, J. M., et al. (2020). Investigating the causal effect of cannabis use on cognitive function with a quasi-experimental co-twin design. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 206, 107712. PMID: 31753729.

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  23. Schreiner, A. M., & Dunn, M. E. (2012). Residual effects of cannabis use on neurocognitive performance after prolonged abstinence: A meta-analysis. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20, 420–429. doi: 10.1037/a0029117.

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  24. Scott, J. C., Slomiak, S. T., Jones, J. D., Rosen, A. F. G., Moore, T. M., & Gur, R. C. (2018). Association of cannabis with cognitive functioning in adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(6), 585–595. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0335. PMID: 29710074.

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  25. Skumlien, M., et al. (2022). Anhedonia, apathy, pleasure, and effort-based decision-making in adult and adolescent cannabis users and controls. [CannTeen study; artículo revisado por pares].

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  26. Skumlien, M., Langley, C., & Sahakian, B. J. (2024). Is cannabis use associated with motivation? A review of recent acute and non-acute studies. Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports, 11, 33–43. doi: 10.1007/s40473-023-00268-1.

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  27. Stella, N. (2023). THC and CBD: Similarities and differences between siblings. [Revisión farmacológica revisada por pares, PubMed Central].

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  28. Suraev, A., et al. (2020). Cannabinoid therapies in the management of sleep disorders: A systematic review of preclinical and clinical studies. [Revisión sistemática].

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  29. Suraev, A., et al. (2025/2026). Acute effects of oral cannabinoids on sleep and high-density EEG in insomnia: A pilot randomised controlled trial. Journal of Sleep Research, 35(1), e70124. doi: 10.1111/jsr.70124.

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  30. Velzeboer, R., Malas, A., Wei, S., Berger, R., Parmar, V., & Lai, W. W. K. (2025). Cannabis and sleep architecture: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 84, 102164. PMID: 40967124. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102164.

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  31. Velzeboer, R., Wei, S., & Lai, W. W. K. (2025). Chronic cannabis use and sleep architecture: A cross-sectional analysis of polysomnography outcomes in a sleep-clinic cohort. Sleep. doi: 10.1093/sleep/zsaf396.

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  32. Xu, H., et al. (2023). Molecular brain differences and cannabis involvement: A systematic review of positron emission tomography studies. [Revisión sistemática PET].

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  33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2026, versión consultada). Cannabis and public health: About cannabis.

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  34. European Union Drugs Agency. (2025–2026, versiones consultadas). Cannabis: European drug market / drug profile / production and retail developments.

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  35. Health Canada. (2025–2026). Health effects of cannabis; cannabis product composition and labelling guidance.

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  36. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. (2023). When taken orally, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol with cannabidiol can result in stronger drug effects than Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol alone.

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Salud física, seguridad, embarazo y uso medicinal

  1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. (2025). Cannabis use during pregnancy and lactation: ACOG Clinical Consensus No. 10. Obstetrics & Gynecology. DOI: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000006053.

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  2. American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine. (2023). ASRA Pain Medicine consensus guidelines on the management of the perioperative patient on cannabis and cannabinoids. Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine.

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  3. American Society for Reproductive Medicine. (2023). Tobacco or marijuana use and infertility: A committee opinion. Fertility and Sterility.

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  4. Camilleri, M. (2023). Cannabinoids and the gastrointestinal tract. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology.

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  5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Cannabis and poisoning. Organismo oficial; sin DOI.

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  6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Cannabis and heart health. Organismo oficial; sin DOI.

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  7. European Union Drugs Agency. (2025). European Drug Report: New psychoactive substances and new cannabinoids. Organismo oficial; sin DOI.

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  8. European Union Drugs Agency. (2026). New psychoactive substances: Market developments and semisynthetic cannabinoids. Organismo oficial; sin DOI.

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  9. Food and Drug Administration. (2024–2026). FDA regulation of cannabis and cannabis-derived products, including cannabidiol. Organismo oficial; sin DOI.

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  10. Groening, J. M., et al. (2024). An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses on the health effects of cannabis use. Revisión paraguas. PMID: 38096722.

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  11. Health Canada. (2024). Cannabis poisonings in children. Organismo oficial; sin DOI.

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  12. Hoch, E., et al. (2025). Cannabis, cannabinoids and health: A review of evidence on risks and medical benefits. PMID: 39299947.

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  13. Jeffers, A. M., et al. (2024). Association of cannabis use with cardiovascular outcomes among US adults. Journal of the American Heart Association. DOI: 10.1161/JAHA.123.030178. PMID: 38415581.

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  14. Lo, J. O., et al. (2024). Cannabis use in pregnancy and neonatal outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0262. PMID: 36730710.

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  15. Lo, J. O., et al. (2025). Prenatal cannabis use and neonatal outcomes: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics. PMID: 40323610.

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  16. Page, R. L., et al. (2020). Medical marijuana, recreational cannabis, and cardiovascular health: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation.

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  17. Simmons, S. M., et al. (2022). The effects of cannabis and alcohol on driving performance and driver behaviour: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction. DOI: 10.1111/add.15770. PMID: 35083810.

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  18. Solmi, M., et al. (2023). Balancing risks and benefits of cannabis use: Umbrella review of meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials and observational studies. PMID: 37648266.

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  19. Sorensen, C. J., DeSanto, K., Borgelt, L., Phillips, K. T., & Monte, A. A. (2017). Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: Diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment—A systematic review. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 13, 71–87. PMID: 28000146.

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  20. Storck, W., et al. (2025). Cardiovascular risk associated with the use of cannabis and cannabinoids: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Heart. PMID: 40527600.

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  21. Swartz, J. A., & Franceschini, D. (2025). Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, 2016 to 2022. JAMA Network Open, 8(11), e2545310. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.45310.

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  22. Wang, L., Hong, P. J., May, C., et al. (2021). Medical cannabis or cannabinoids for chronic non-cancer and cancer-related pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials. BMJ, 374, n1034. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.n1034. PMID: 34497047.

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  23. Wymore, E. M., et al. (2021). Persistence of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in human breast milk. JAMA Pediatrics.

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  24. Young-Wolff, K. C., et al. (2024). Prenatal cannabis use and maternal pregnancy outcomes. JAMA Internal Medicine.

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Organismos oficiales y tests

  1. NIDA, Cannabis (Marijuana).

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  2. CDC, Health Effects of Cannabis.

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  3. SENDA, Cannabis.

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  4. SENDA, sitio institucional.

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  5. Minsal, Salud Responde.

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  6. OMS, ASSIST.

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  7. CAST, propiedades psicométricas.

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  8. CUDIT-R, artículo original.

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Hablar de riesgos no es negar los usos médicos del cannabis: también citamos la evidencia sobre ellos. La inclusión de una fuente no implica afiliación ni respaldo institucional a NO+BRUMA. Si encuentras un error o un enlace roto, escríbenos por Instagram a @dejalamota.

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